Creation Of The Starbucks Experience Marketing Essay

Creation Of The Starbucks Experience Marketing Essay Started up in 1971, Starbucks is one of the worlds largest chains of coffee houses. Starting out as a single shop that specializes in high quality coffee and brewing products, the company grew to be the largest roasters with multiple locations in America the early 80s. From there it expanded its operations and growth to North America, Europe, Middle East, Latin America and the Pacific Rim. Worldwide there are approximately 35 million customers that visit a SB Coffee house each week. Starbucks is all about purchases and roasts high-quality whole bean coffees and sells them along with fresh, rich-brewed, Italian style espresso beverages, a variety of pastries and confections, and coffee-related accessories and equipment primarily through its company-operated retail stores.   In addition to sales through their company-operated retail stores, Starbucks sells whole bean coffees through a specialty sales group and supermarkets.   The Companys objective is to establish Starbucks as the most recognized and respected brand in the world. The company grew from 17 stores in 1987 to more than 16,000 worldwide today (ONeill, 2008); see Table 1. The stores are all company owned except for the licensing arrangements for kiosks in places such as airports and hospitals. Recently, Starbucks was in the news for shutting down 500 of its stores and laying off 7% of its work force (Adamy, 2008). The reason for the store closings were that earnings were down and the stock price has tumbled since late 2006. Other than the economic recession in the U.S. and around the world, the downslide in Starbucks earnings is also attributed to a slowdown in consumer spending and an increase in competition from other coffee and restaurant chains, especially McDonalds (Adamy, 2008). Today, Starbucks is working to regain market share, and improve productivity and profitability without sacrificing the quality and reliability of its products and service. 2. Starbucks Experience (Process Technology) Starbuckss strategy in targeting its customers is to position itself as a third place in the lifestyles of its customers. That is to say, the prototypical Starbucks customer will spend their time at home, at work, and at Starbucks. To encourage this idea, Starbucks locations are furnished with comfortable seating, provide outlets for electronic equipment, and a blanket no-smoking policy ensures that all customers are comfortable in the environment, refer to Figure 2. Coffee Drinks Menu Promotions Pastries Espresso Bar Cashier Magazines Products Condiments Entrance Figure 2. Basic Starbucks Coffee Store Layout in a Penang, Malaysia Making customers more comfortable while spending time in the stores causes them to stay longer and, in doing so, indulge in more of what Starbucks has to offer. As customers linger, they are more likely to buy a second cup of coffee or a snack, to pay for wi-fi internet access, to burn a CD, etc. In addition to diversify its product offerings, Starbucks is also looking to broaden its customer base beyond just young urban professionals and college students. Many of the more recent adjustments to how Starbucks conducts its business are aimed at accommodating the varied lifestyles of the not-so-traditional Starbucks customer. The Coffee (Capacity Management Supplier chain strategy) 3.1 Managing Operations Early On at Starbucks: Today, Starbucks is a publicly traded company, more than a retail store; its an importer, a manufacturer, a wholesaler, and a direct mail business organization. However, in the beginning, before going public in 1992, the roasting plant and headquarters were located next to each other in the city of Seattle, Washington. This close proximity allowed Howard Schultz, to be involved in the operational planning and control of this enterprise on a day-to-day basis (Schultz and Jones, 1997).. 3.2 Early Supply Chain: A supply chain (SC) is the network of activities that deliver a product or service to the customer. It is the sourcing of raw materials, assembly, warehousing, order entry, distribution, and delivery. In other words, a supply chain is the sequence of organizational facilities, functions, and activities that are all involved in the production and delivery of a quality product or service at an affordable and competitive price (Gates Gill, 2007; Wisner et al, 2005). By facilities meaning warehouses, factories or plants, processing centers, distribution centers, retail outlets, and offices. By functions and activities we mean demand forecasting, purchasing, inventory management, information management, quality assurance, scheduling, production, delivery, and customer service (Russell and Taylor, 2011). It is no wonder that supply chains are also referred to as value chains, because the ultimate value of a product or service takes place along this chain from raw ma terial purchasing to receiving to storage to operations and finally through the distribution system to the end user (Stevenson, 2009). Supply chain management (SCM) is the business function that coordinates all of the network links, thereby, coordinates efficient movement of goods through the supply chain from suppliers to manufacturers to distributors, and promotes sharing of information such as the demand forecasts, sales data, and sales promotions along the chain (Stevenson, 2009). The main reasons for supply chain management are twofold: (1) a total systems approach to managing the entire flow of information, materials, and services from raw-material suppliers through factories and warehouses to the end customer; and (2) the strategic coordination of business functions within a business organization and throughout its supply chain for the purpose of integrating supply and demand management and creating a balance between supply and demand (Wisner et al, 2005). Effective supply chain management is a key component of competing successfully in todays cutthroat global marketplace. Without effectively managing the flo w of goods, supplies, and even services, no company can hope to maintain control of their quality, costs, or meet their customers needs. Starbucks learned early on that the quality of the coffee that ends up in the customers hands can be easily ruined by mishandling activities in the supply chain. To control process quality, Starbucks had to manage its own supply chain. Simply put, if the farmer does not get a good price for the green coffee beans, they then would not invest in fertilizer and the maintenance involved in growing quality coffee beans (Schultz and Jones, 1997; Wikipedia II). The coffee can be under or over roasted. If the coffee beans sit on the shelf for too long they go stale, so the right amount of inventory is a crucial factor, which in turn relates to the effectiveness of supply chain management. Starbucks prefers to handle its own supply chain, open company-owned stores, and has resisted franchising in fear of giving up its control over selling a high-quality product. 3.3 Why Dark Roast: The highest quality coffee beans have always been dark roasted which is what differentiates Starbucks from other coffee sellers. By roasting the coffee beans dark, Starbucks gave up a way to improve the productivity of the roasting process; the lighter the roast the more money is saved (Schultz and Jones, 1997). Starbucks has always struggled with maintaining its value of serving high-quality dark roast coffee even though there are many non-customers who think the dark roast tastes like burnt coffee. 3.4 Instability in the Supply Chain: Purchasing green coffee beans from developing countries brings several risks such as bad weather, political risk, and inconsistent quality. There were times when the weather affected the price of green coffee beans. Starbucks managed supply chain costs by locking in the price of green coffee through long-term contracts at a fixed price which ensured a constant flow of inventory. In June of 1994, the cost of green coffee had been locked in at 0.50 cents a pound. Then a severe frost in Brazil caused the price of green coffee beans to increase 330%. A decision was made to pass the incremental cost on to the customers rather than replacement cost as the gasoline stations are doing today each time the price of oil goes up. Immediately, profitability was affected by an adverse effect in the supply chain. An unstable supply chain can cause an immediate reaction from Wall Street when profits for a company are expected to be affected by adverse conditions (Carier, 2007). 4. Customer Service (Lean Production) Each Starbucks store has customer comment cards available at the condiment stations. The comment cards help Starbucks management keep in touch with what customers want from the coffee products and The Starbucks Experience. The cards give the customer a chance to judge the experience they just had and make suggestions on new products. Starbucks has a guarantee statement posted in the store as Our Promise that states the customers can get a coffee drink the way they want it. If the customer is not satisfied with a drink another one will be made to their satisfaction. If a customer wants to try the taste of the coffee before purchasing, the barista will offer a sample. The Starbucks guarantee statement is as follows. Our Promise: Your drink should be perfect, every time. If not, let us know and we will make it right. 4.1 Customer Requirements: Starbucks continuously solicits feedback from customers via a wide variety of means. These include but are not limited to: direct feedback at the counter; customer feedback through the Starbucks Customer Connections (SCC) website; and questionnaires on the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) report (Starbucks Company Timeline). Customer requirements are considered when designing the quality and reliability of the coffee drinks and the experience at Starbucks. As the stores became popular as a third place for the customers, Starbucks responded by finding ways to respond to the requirements of the customers and enhance the spirit of the stores. See Table 2, Starbuckss Quality Table, for an organized list of customer requirements, appearing in the rows of the table, gathered from research and talking to people who drink coffee. The corresponding solutions, appearing in the columns of the table, describe how Starbucks is responding to meeting the customer requirements. It is suffice to say that Starbucks has attempted to meet all the requirements of the customers. The Quality Table also demonstrates the relationship between the customer requirements and the Starbuckss solutions. The strength of relationships is determined using the conventional symbolism of the quality function deployment (QFD) process. What follows next are some highlights on how some of the requirements were met. sbucks.jpg Strength of relationships: Strong , Medium , Weak 4.2 Training Improves Customer Service Reliability: The coffee drinks are inert (Schultz and Jones, 1997). Its the people that work at Starbucks that pass on the passion and knowledge about coffee. Because baristas are expected to be more than transaction handlers, the skill involved is higher than is required from a server at McDonalds, for example. Starbucks has traditionally invested more on training than on advertising. Employees, partners as they are called, all go through 24 hours of training on making a quality cup of coffee and learn about the all coffee varieties that are served at Starbucks. At Starbucks, the customer is in control of the process, thus, the baristas are trained to prepare a drink the way the customer wants it. This can make the order process take longer time, but improves the sales opportunity. One thing a barista will not do, for sanitation reasons, is make a drink with milk that customers may bring in to the store with them (Schultz and Jones, 1997). In addition to training, there are other ways that Starbucks guarantees a reliable coffee drink. A poka-yoke (error-proofing) technique is used to help relay an espresso drink order to the barista behind the espresso bar (i.e., callout order, repeat order), see Figure 2. A typical service blueprint of the order process at Starbucks is shown in Figure 3. To start the order process, the barista behind the cash register gives friendly service by looking the customer in the eye and then greeting the customer. The customer gives the order. If the order is for an espresso drink, the barista repeats the order, out loud, and states the ingredients in a predefined order (size, type of milk, type of coffee, etc.) (Gates Gill, 2007). The barista behind the espresso bar repeats the drink ingredients in the same order. This simple poka-yoke technique helps to guarantee that the drink will be made correctly the first time (Gates Gill, 2007). This process was observed at the Michigan store with one addition, the barista asked for the customers name and repeated it with the drink order. In the early days, the baristas were trained to ask the customers name. Howard Schultz has brought this step back as another way to differentiate Starbucks from the other coffee shop s; this act, in turn, has had a positive impact on improving market share. 4.3 Benefits Reduce Partner Turnover: Starbucks employee turn-over rate is 120% less than the industry average for retail coffee shops (Michelli, 2007). There are three reasons for this low-turnover rate: (1) hourly wages are higher than the industry average, (2) partners are offered health care benefits, and (3) a company stock plan is given if they work more than 20 hours per week. Starbucks employees tend to be young and healthy which keeps the cost of health benefits low. The benefits package at Starbucks is a key competitive advantage. The wage, health benefits, and company stock plan have all helped to reduce Starbuckss employee turnover; in turn, low partner turnover has reduced training costs. In 1997, research showed that the average customer returned 18 times per month (Schultz and Jones, 1997). Customers develop a relationship with the baristas serving coffee. One may reasonably assume that low-turnover contributes to a reliable Starbucks Experience and customer loyalty. The Starbucks Experience (Performance improvement strategy) 5.1 Stores Location Selection Decision: Location decisions are not easy and many factors affect them. Location decisions are closely tied to an organizations strategies, low-cost, convenience to attract market share, effect on capacity and flexibility, represent a long-term commitment of resources, effect investment requirements, operating costs, revenues, and operations, impact competitive advantage, and importance to supply chains. Definitely a multivariate constrained optimization problem. Location decisions arise for a variety of reasons such as addition of new facilities, as part of a marketing strategy to expand markets, growth in demand that cannot be satisfied by expanding existing facilities, depletion of basic inputs which requires relocation, shift in markets, and cost of doing business at a particular location which makes relocation attractive (Stevenson, 2009; Wisner et al, 2005). Starbucks uses its own real-estate strategy for locating company-owned stores. When enterin g a new market, analysis is made to determine if multiple stores will survive in order to take advantage of economies of scale. A major customer complaint is the long lines waiting for coffee drinks at Starbucks stores. Starbucks opens new locations close to busy locations in order to relieve the wait in lines and increase service rates. The downside to this strategy is the new location tends to cannibalize sales from the busy store. To establish a new store, Starbucks also experiences resistance from rural communities who feel a Starbucks store will put the local coffee shops out of business and change the character of the rural community. There have been times that Starbucks declined to move into a new community because of this local resistance sentiment (Schultz and Jones, 1997). Starbucks management is sometimes able to reverse this sentiment by becoming involved in the community with donations and charitable events or contributions. There are many jokes about Starbucks becoming ubiquitous. Traditionally, when a new store would open the customers would come by word-of mouth without spending large amounts of money on advertising. 5.2 Store Layout Evaluation: Layout is about the configuration of departments, work centers, and equipment, with particular emphasis on movement of work, customers or materials, through the system (Jacobs and Chase, 2011; Russell and Taylor, 2011). Facilities layout decisions arise when designing new facilities and/or re-designing existing facilities. Basic layout types are product layouts, process layouts, fixed-position layout, and combination layouts which contain hybrid layouts and cellular layouts ((Jacobs and Chase, 2011; Stevenson, 2009). From the beginning the idea behind the Starbuckss stores layouts was to recreate the experience in the espresso bars in Italy where customers come in daily and stand to enjoy an espresso drink (Schultz and Jones, 1997). Over time, Starbucks has become a third place for customers to go to get away from daily hectic, enjoy a cup of coffee, listen to music, do some work using the Internet service, socialize with friends, and even hold a business meeting. Young customers drink lots of coffee and enjoy having a place to go where alcohol is not served. Before moving into a new location, research is done to understand the culture, and art work is displayed in the stores that reflect the communitys culture. The store layout shows that Starbucks mainly uses the product layout approach where customers stand in line, going from station to station so to speak, to be served while interacting with the baristas to place an order. No credit cards or checks are taken which helps keep the lines moving. During busy times, at this store, one or two baristas take the order and payment while one makes the basic coffee and tea drinks and another fills orders at the espresso bar. Everything happens in view and in control of the customer. The customer watches the barista grind fresh coffee beans before brewing which is a change that Starbucks has recently made to re-introduce the spirit of the Italian espresso shops. This spirit or Starbucks Experience is more important than the mere productivity improvement of, for example, the quick opening of a package of pre-ground coffee. The customer watches a drink order being made while, concurrently, having a conversation with the barista. This high-degree of c ustomer contact is enhanced in two ways: when a barista walks around the store offering samples of products or when a master barista is holding a coffee seminar or demonstration. The espresso bar is separated from the area where the drink order is taken, so the customer must walk to the bar to pick up the specialty drink. One of the changes that Starbucks plans to make is to replace the espresso machines with the old style machines that sit lower. The downside to this decision is that the old style machines are not as efficient; however, the customers will be able to see the barista as the drink is being made which adds to the ambiance of the Starbucks stores and provides the spirit of the Italian espresso shops. Future Trend and Changes Going Green and creating awareness Starbucks, appearing to be an agent of environmental protection, has been busy promoting responsible environmentalism by minimizing their carbon footprint. Starbuckss evaluation their infrastructure too has led the company to implement their own initiatives by dialoguing, building a foundation called Business for Innovative Climate and Energy Policy (BICEP), collaborating with representatives supporting environmentalism, designing and constructing green storefronts and utilizing the conservation of natural resources within their operations. Back In 1992, Starbucks became a publicly traded company. Shortly thereafter, a cross functional team of Starbucks partners adopted an environmental mission statement. What evolved was an Environmental Affairs team that seeks to develop environmentally responsible policies and procedures. As new environmental issues arise, this group examines our current measures and identifies opportunities for improvement. Environmental Footprint Analysis To determine our environmental impact, or footprint, as a company, in fiscal 2001 Starbucks worked with The Natural Step, a nonprofit consulting and education group helping organizations take steps toward sustainability. We analyzed Starbucks supply chain-from coffee bean to coffee cup-looking for opportunities to make our footprint smaller. Throughout the process, we focused on achievable measures that could significantly reduce our footprint or environmental impact. Some solutions were obvious, such as addressing packaging, energy, waste, and recycling issues. Other measures are more challenging but necessary if we are serious about demonstrating environmental leadership. Thus, our efforts are focused on four areas: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Coffee, tea and paper sourcing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Transportation impacts (people and goods) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Electricity, gas and water use à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Store design and operations Starbucks identified ways to measure our performance for each focus area and developed specific initiatives to improve our resource efficiency. Our store recycling metric measures the percentage of stores with established recycling programs. Starbucks goal is to offer recycling in all of our company operated stores. Achieving this goal is determined by the availability of commercial recycling services in each community, and the support of our property managers. In fiscal 2002, we will collaborate with other like-minded retailers to encourage our mutual property managers participation in recycling programs. For commuter mug usage, we measured the percentage of beverages served in reusable commuter mugs against fiscal 2000. Although Starbucks provides a $0.10 commuter mug incentive discount to customers, our data indicated a decline in usage. In fiscal 2002, we will take measures to raise awareness of this waste reduction opportunity to our partners and customers. Embracing Change The key to fulfilling our environmental mission rests on our ability to make changes within our operations.With the commitment of Starbucks senior leadership team to make meaningful progress, and the adoption of an action plan that is communicated throughout our organization, Starbucks is moving in a direction that will minimize our environmental footprint. 1.9% Another important step Starbucks has taken is to cultivate an active Green Team, which consists of retail store managers across North America. The Team was created in 1994 and has been instrumental in identifying environmental opportunities, creating solutions, and communicating those solutions to our retail partners. The Green Teams efforts have been critical to our efforts to conserve energy, reduce waste and involve our partners some of our initiatives for fiscal 2001 included the following: Energy Conservation Starbucks established a Utility Task Force in fiscal 1999 to identify conservation measures, such as modified lighting and adjusted thermostats. In fiscal 2001, the Utility Task Force piloted several measures aimed at conserving energy while providing cost savings. We rolled out the Utility Task Forces recommendations in our North American company-operated stores at the end of fiscal 2001. Waste Reduction Starbucks Green Team first promoted the idea of offering coffee grounds as compost in spring 1998, and now it is an annual event. This initiative has helped reduce waste in our stores and provided many customers with nitrogen-rich material for their gardens. Earth Day To celebrate Earth Day 2001, last April more than 600 Starbucks partners contributed nearly 3,000 volunteer hours helping to improve the environment. For Earth Day 2002, Starbucks will support the Earth Day Network (www.earthday.net), an on-line resource for environmental information and opportunities to get involved on a local level around the world. We will raise awareness about this valuable resource to our partners and customers who seek to get involved in their communities. Future Decades in Operation Growth Using E-Commerce and customer loyalty programs to generate constant demand and growth, Starbucks Converting Browsers into Buyers: Visitors to a Web site often look over the site without purchasing anything. Recommender systems can help consumers find products they wish to purchase. Increasing Cross-sell: Recommender systems improve cross-sell by suggesting additional products for the customer to purchase. If the recommendations are good, the average order size should increase. For instance, a site might recommend additional products in the checkout process, based on those products already in the shopping cart. Building Loyalty: In a world where a sites competitors are only a click or two away, gaining consumer loyalty is an essential business strategy (Reichheld and Sesser, 1990; Reichheld, 1993). Recommender systems improve loyalty by creating a value-added relationship between the site and the customer. Sites invest in learning about their customers, use recommender systems to operationalize that learning, and present custom interfaces that match consumer needs. Consumers repay these sites by returning to the ones that best match their needs. The more a customer uses the recommendation system-teaching it what he wants-the more loyal he is to the site. Even if a competitor were to build the exact same capabilities, a customer . . . would have to spend an inordinate amount of time and energy teaching the competitor what the company already knows (Pine et al., 1995). Creating relationships between consumers can also increase loyalty, for consumers will return to the site that recommends people with whom they will like to interact. The Starbucks success story Starbucks jumped into the social media arena with My Starbucks Idea Starbucks own version of a social network where customers are asked to share their ideas on anything related to Starbucks. Starbucks also started a blog entitled Ideas in Action. This allows them to reach many more customers across a wide social media landscape, recognizing that not all consumers use the same social networking sites. Starbucks increased its online brand presence with these additions: Starbucks on Twitter Starbucks on Facebook Starbucks on YouTube In a blog post, Starbucks Formula to Social Media Success, marketing consultant Ayelet Noff analyzes Starbucks highly-visible social media footprint across the web, the secret for its success. Overall Starbuckss social media strategy integrates many different elements into the mix and combined together, these elements create a social media plan that works beautifully to create millions of fans for the brand and keep them involved in the brands doings. The brand has created a digital dialogue with its customers, enabling people to give their feedback and receive a response back from Starbucks addressing their concerns/comments. Starbucks is showing its customers and potential customers hey, we care about what YOU have to say. I am certain that if each one of these elements was done alone then the strategy would not have been as successful and complete as it is when done like this in integration with the rest of the elements on board. Starbucks has over 705,000 followers on twitter and over 5,428,000 fans on Facebook. I guess you could say that theyre doing something right on the Web. Ayelet Noff, aka Blonde 20, 1/11/10 A post by Clark Fredricksen offered this insight. While the classic mantra on social media may be all about conversation and no up sell, the reality is that a mix of promotion and interaction can yield results, as companies like Dell, JetBlue, and Starbucks show. More to the point: Consumers even those on social networks really arent that offended if you give them a good deal. As we wrote in a recent newsletter article, those polled for the 2009 Cone Consumer New Media Study were interested in brands that would keep them informed, provide product information and give incentives-and generally use new media to help solve consumers problems. Tracking Twitter Success at Dell posted by: Clark Fredricksen December 11, 2009 Starbucks has selected Square to process mobile payments at its approximately 7,000 stores nationwide in the United States, in a move that could shake up the nascent mobile payments market in the country. The coffee company had introduced the first mobile payment via iPhone app in 2009. It took mobile payments nationwide in January 2011 after testing its app for iPhones, the iPod touch and BlackBerries. At a press briefing in New York on Wednesday, Starbucks chairman, president and CEO Howard Schultz told reporters the company had been approached by all the mobile payment processors in the market over the past six months. It selected Square after meeting with that firm. The evolving social and digital media platforms and highly innovative and relevant payment capabilities are causing seismic changes in consumer behavior and creating equally seismic disruptive opportunities for business, Lisa Passe, Starbucks director of global brand public relations, told the E-Commerce Times. Both Starbucks and Square take a similar approach when building products and running our business, and together we can bring the best possible payment experience to Starbucks customers, Passe continued. We also expect to reduce our payment processing costs as a result of this agreement.

American Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century

American Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century was a very important era in our country. Imperialism is the acquisition of control over the government and the economy of another nation; usually by conquest. The United States became an imperialistic world power in the late nineteenth century by gaining control over the Hawaiian Island and after the Spanish American War (1898), Guam, the Philippines, Cuba and Puerto Rico. (Davidson, Delay, Heyrman, Lytle & Stoff, 2008) This policy was adopted to keep up with the world powers like Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, and Russia. Compared to the European-style imperialism the possession by conquest American imperialism was said to be more pure because it was done without conquest; it was completed with exportation of products, ideas, and influence. As countries became dependant on industrialism they needed the foreign trade to bring in the capital. Companies within the country could purchase products but that only moved the capital from producer to purchaser within our own economy. Securing the interests of trade was not an easy task as there were five other world empires trying to complete the same goal. Americans preferred the more indirect approach to imperialism, free enterprise. It was a win-win approach for America, everyone stood to gain by the rapid and expanding social and economic networks that were going to be secured. Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan argued that if the US was to be a great nation we needed to protect its interest in the foreign markets. He persuaded Congress to build a new Navy that consisted of large cruisers and battleships that were steam powered vessels made of steal. Congress agreed and the program to rebuild the Navy began in the 1880’s. The United States Navy was the third best in the world by 1900 and now had to means to become an imperial power and protect its vested interests. (Davidson, Delay, Heyrman, Lytle, & Stoff, 2008) The United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867; the deal was negotiated by William H Seward the Secretary of State and an ardent expansionist who was committed to enhancing the nation’s trade and military standing. We established a presence in Samoa during the 1870’s and the importance of Hawaii was recognized in the early portion of the nineteenth century. By 1875 the US had complete control of Pearl Harbor. American Imperialism grew momentum during the Spanish-American War (1898). The war only lasted four months but it was a turning point for America as it resulted in the acquisition of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines. (Gale Encyclopedia, 1999) In 1899 the Anti-Imperialist League was founded. The League was the largest lobbying organization through the nineteenth century; the purpose of this organization was to oppose the US annexation of the Philippines. Even though the League had popular members like Andrew Carnegie, Jane Addams, and Williams James they struggled with a consistent message. It was this inconsistency that hindered their efforts to win the support within the Republican Party. After the Treaty of Paris was approved by Congress the League’s strength declined. Many of the League activists were charged with treason, causing even more decline in the support of their political cause. The expansion into the Caribbean continued and in 1903 the United States instigated a Panama revolution. The United States immediately entered a treaty with Panama to build the Panama Canal. In 1904 President Roosevelt declared that the US reserved the right to intervene in the affairs of smaller western hemisphere nations should these smaller countries fails to meet their financial obligations to European creditors. This was the so-called â€Å"Roosevelt Corollary† to the Monroe Doctrine. Over the next several years this policy was applied in the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Nicaragua. Overall, American Imperialism could have been more successful. In the end the interventions came to be expensive and more often caused bitterness and resentment with the affected countries. Since trade with the Far East did not grow like expected business sought to expand their markets within the Western Hemisphere. This required a different approach, one of good will and not tension. With this the Age of Imperialism as we knew it was over. In 1933 the United States formally renounced intervention to the world at an international conference in Uruguay. However after the 1959 revolution in Cuba the United States formulated a new round of international intervention by the Central Intelligence Agency in Cuba, Honduras, Chile, Nicaragua and numerous other foreign countries. (Gale Encyclopedia, 1999)

Physical education Essay

Introduction Recent educational changes have spurred the need for assessment within the Physical Education field. Although it has always been part of the instructional process – Plan, Teach, Evaluate -it has not received the attention of many physical educators until recently. In the past it was not necessary to use assessment techniques for several reasons. Educators were not required to provide information on student performance to anyone. Both practicality of useful instruments and time needed to complete such assessments appeared to take away from the more relevant parts of teaching. In addition, professionals in the physical education field were not required to have defined learning outcomes for their students. Today, with the increased emphasis on accountability, physical education teachers in New Hampshire must rethink the place of assessment within their programs. The newly revised NH STANDARDS for Public School Approval (Ed 306 – effective 7/1/2005) addresses assessment in physical education as part of section 306. 41. It states: In the area of physical education, the local school board shall require that each school physical education provides: Sound assessment practices in physical education that: 1. Match goals and objectives; 2. Require evaluation and synthesis of knowledge and skills; 3. Emphasize higher-order thinking skills; 4. Clearly indicate what the student is asked to do; 5. Are at an appropriate skill level according to: a. State standard; and b. The needs of the individual; 6. Have criteria that are clear to students and teachers; 7. Are engaging and relevant to students; 8. Link to ongoing instruction; 9. Provide feedback to students; 10. Provide cost-effective benefits to students; 11. Reflect real-world situations; and 12. Emphasize use of available knowledge and skills in relevant problem contexts. In addition, assessment plays a key role in Follow the Child, a recently established New Hampshire Department of Education initiative, under the leadership of Commissioner Lyonel B. Tracy. This initiative, offered to New Hampshire schools and districts, helps schools foster student aspirations to promote student success through an emphasis on personalized learning and assessment and focuses on measuring student growth through all areas of each child’s life. To become a Follow the Child designated district, the school administrative unit (SAU) must show a commitment to several beliefs including the use of continuous assessment strategies. Therefore, it is imperative that physical education teachers are knowledgeable about assessment and utilize sound practices. 6 What is Assessment? Assessment refers to the process of testing and evaluating students to determine progress towards program goals. It is an important part of any sound physical education program because it helps teachers to measure students’ current levels of ability, progress, and their own teaching  effectiveness. A quality assessment model in physical education involves: 1. formally stating the instructional objectives (cognitive, psychomotor, affective) 2. pre-assessing the students 3. measuring the achievement of objectives using valid and reliable tests during and after the delivery of appropriate instructional activities 4. evaluating student progress towards meeting the objectives 7 What are the Principles that Guide Assessment? A quality assessment model is based on three principles: 1. Establish appropriate instructional objectives using national, state, and local standards or guidelines. 2. Select/use appropriate measures to determine student progress towards meeting instructional objectives. Assessment can take many forms. Both formal and informal tools can be used. (See â€Å"What are the Approaches to Assessment? †) 3. Develop an evaluation scheme that reflects the attainment of instructional objectives. While grading is part of the evaluation scheme, it should not be the only outcome. (See â€Å"What is the Relationship between Assessment and Grading? †) 8 What Do the Components of an Effective Assessment Measure? For an assessment measure to be effective, it needs to include: 1.validity – Does it measure what it claims to measure? There needs to be agreement between what the assessment measures and the performance, skill, or behavior the assessment is designed to measure. For example, if a test is designed to measure cardiovascular endurance, one must be confident it does so. It is important to remember that validity is specific to a particular use and group. An assessment might be valid for one age group, but not valid for a different age group. 2. reliability – Does it measure consistently? A reliable assessment should obtain approximately the same results regardless of the number  of times it is given. For example, an assessment given to a group of students on one day should yield approximately the same results if it is given to the same group on another day. 3. objectivity – Does the measurement yield highly similar results when administered by others? For example, an assessment has high objectivity when two or more people can administer the same assessment to the same group and obtain approximately the same results. 4. feasibility – Is the measure straightforward and easy to set up and administer? The following administrative considerations may help one determine the feasibility of an  assessment. a) Cost: does the assessment require expensive equipment that one does not have or cannot afford to purchase? b) Time: does the assessment take too much instructional time? c) Ease of administration: Does one need assistance to administer the assessment? If so, how will these people be trained? Are the instructions easy to follow? Is the assessment reasonable in the demands that are placed on those being assessed? d) Scoring: If another person is needed to help administer the assessment, will it affect the objectivity of the scoring? (For example: A person is needed to pitch the ball to  the hitter in a softball hitting assessment. ) 5. usefulness – Can the results be used for valid educational purposes such as self-appraisal, program planning, or reporting progress? For example: A worksheet is given to a student so one can demonstrate knowledge of skills/games. The results could provide to the student an idea of how much is known about skills/games (self-appraisal), to determine where in the lesson this information should be covered (program planning), and/or as part of calculating students grades (reporting progress). 9 What Are the Purposes of Assessment? 1. Student Learning: Assessment is a way for educators to measure progress, strengths, and areas of growth. Many teachers assess their students using a pre-test, mid-term, and post- test to gauge student learning. This may take place throughout a unit or the entire school year. 2. Improvement of Teaching: Teachers use assessment to determine what is effective in their teaching practices; what is working and what needs improvement. A variety of assessment tools may be used in order to determine what types of instruction are most beneficial in meeting the needs of students. 3. Communication: Assessment should serve as a means of communication between educators, students, administrators, and parents. Parents and students often look at assessment to see WHAT is being learned, HOW progress is being measured, and the TYPE of instruction being received. Educators and administrators use assessment to evaluate teaching practices and to determine if there are gaps in the curriculum. 4. Program Evaluation: Assessment can prove a good measure of one’s program, revealing evidence of the effectiveness of that program, throughout the year, assessment can offer  direction to the program and modifications can be made to increase both student and instructional success. 5. Program Support: Consistent assessment can be used to validate one’s program. Data gained is objective and can show evidence of goals and objectives being met by both student and teacher. With clear data presented, a strong measure of program support may follow. 6. Motivation: Assessment shows progress. When improvement is shown, students feel Positive about their learning environment. Documented assessment can offer proof of growth, thus enhancing students’ motivation to perform to the best of their ability. 10 What Should be Assessed? The Three Domains of Learning Throughout a child’s development there are three domains of learning that exist in order to educate the whole child. Psychomotor, cognitive, and the affective domains give meaning to learning. These are essential in allowing a child to explore the learning environment and obtain as much information about the world as possible. The three Domains are: 1. Psychomotor- The performance component; exploring one’s environment and gaining skills throughout the process. 2. Cognitive-The knowledge component; thinking, associating experiences with learning. 3. Affective-Personal and social development. Providing children with opportunities to interact with others in order to gain a sense of themselves and those around them. Incorporation of the 3 Domains in Physical Education According to David Gallahue, in physical education the three domains are interwoven to give meaning to movement. When children understand WHY their body functions the way it does (cognitive), they can begin to attain skill competency (psychomotor) and associate positive feelings with physical activity (affective). a. Psychomotor domain -the heart of physical education is developing competent motor skill abilities. b. Cognitive domain- an understanding of movement concepts and principles that allow children to become more efficient movers and learners through movement. c. Affective domain – development of acceptable social and personal behaviors in physical activity settings that allow for a productive learning environment with students working responsibly both individually and as members of a group. Assessment of the Three Domains in Physical Education When assessing the psychomotor domain, one is measuring the development of motor skills and health related fitness. For example, at the primary level, students demonstrate skipping by  performing the skill using the step, hop pattern or at the intermediate level, students participate in the FitnessGram assessment program. When assessing the cognitive domain, one is measuring student knowledge of movement concepts, principles, strategies and tactics. For example, at the middle school level students articulate the skill pattern of the underhand throw (â€Å"ready, swing back, step, follow through†) or describe a strategy used to defend territory during an activity. 11 When assessing the affective domain, one is measuring the development of acceptable social and personal behaviors in physical activity settings. For example, at the high school level, students fill out a self reflection about their performance, complete a peer evaluation or identify, follow and, when appropriate, create safety guidelines for participation in physical activity settings. 12 What Are the Approaches to Assessments? What is Formal and Informal Assessment? Teachers can collect information using either formal or informal evaluation. Formal assessment is usually standardized. This standardization allows the teacher to interpret student performance and provides an objective way to assess learning. Informal assessment, sometimes termed alternative/authentic assessment, often relies on observation techniques. What is Traditional Assessment? The term traditional assessment is used to describe the means of gathering information on student learning through techniques such as multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, and matching questions, as well as essays. These approaches are particularly useful in assessing students’ knowledge of information, concepts, and rules. They are also appropriate for assessing students’ knowledge of the terms and processes involved in a career. Because factual knowledge of information is one important aspect of applied technology, carefully  designed multiple-choice and matching questions can enable the teacher to quickly assess student mastery of content knowledge. However, an effective assessment evaluates knowledge of facts as well as the connection to a broader body of knowledge. Proficiency in applied technology depends on the ability to know and integrate facts about all aspects of industry into useful constructs. What is Alternative Assessment? Teachers from all academic fields are now being held accountable for the performance of their students. This level of accountability requires teachers to document student learning. In addition to  traditional assessment, more physical education teachers are incorporating â€Å"real-life† learning in their classes. These alternative or authentic assessments focus on the use of what is learned in real- life settings. â€Å"Alternative assessment techniques can be applicable to using assessment as a â€Å"learning experience† that is part of the instructional process rather than something that is â€Å"done to† students (Rink, 2006). Alternative assessment takes time. The teacher must balance the need for reliable and valid information against the practical issues involved in limited program time and too many students. Yet these assessments are gaining in popularity because they tend to focus on more meaningful â€Å"real-life† learning. Authentic assessment focuses on the use of what is learned in real-life settings. Alternative assessments techniques can be used for all of the learning domains and are most applicable to using assessment as a â€Å"learning experience† that is part of the instructional process. Most alternative assessment relies heavily on the assessor making a judgment about some performance. This performance could be about a physical skill or ability, an affective or cognitive behavior. 13 What are the Different Types of Assessment that are Used in Physical Education? Many types of assessments can be used by educators to collect information and provide students with a variety of learning experiences. The following are a few types of assessments used in physical education. After each type, the approach (formal or informal) is noted in italics. . Observation is one of the most common forms of assessment used in physical education. Observational data is a useful form of assessment for the teacher to assess student performance. It is also one of the most useful self and peer assessment activities. When the students are provided a set of criteria to assess their performance or the performance of others, they are learning what is important in what you are trying to teach them and learn to focus their efforts on improvement. (Rink, 2006). An example of each assessment noted below has been placed in Appendix I. †¢ Checklist: associate with observation data; used to identify a particular behavior or characteristic of performance with established criteria. Informal †¢ Performance task: are meaningful â€Å"culminating† experiences that can be accomplished within a single instructional period. Examples would include a dance routine, warm-up routine, locomotor skill sequences, skit, role playing, and oral report. Informal †¢ Rating scale: associated with observation data; determines degree Informal †¢ Record of performance: ‘Snapshot’ of performance from daily tasks (i. e. win/loss, fitness scores, skill assessments) Formal †¢ Rubric: used to assess complex behavior; a multidimensional rating scale. Formal †¢ Student interview, survey and questionnaire: used to gather information on student thinking and feeling. Informal †¢ Student journal: are often used as a â€Å"notebook† where students are asked to reflect on their  performance/ express their feelings, perceptions and attitudes about their experiences in physical education. Informal †¢ Student log: Establish a record of participation or some other behavior or characteristic over time. Formal †¢ Student project: designed as a learning and assessment experience. Students are asked to investigate, design/construct, and present their work in some form. Formal †¢ Written test/worksheet: Is the most common form of assessment in all content areas. It is considered the best way for teachers to determine student knowledge. Formal A portfolio has not been listed above as a type of student assessment. Although it may mean many things to some, within this document a portfolio is considered a representative collection of learning over time. It should demonstrate progress and learning. Students today are part of a highly technological world. Therefore, assessments might include audio-visuals (posters, white boards, easels) and computer-assisted techniques (i. e. mind mapping, imovies, powerpoint, movement skill videos). These knowledge or performance assessments can be compiled in an electronic portfolio that would demonstrate learning over time. 14 Types of Student Assessment Used in Physical Education. There are many types of assessments that can be used by teachers to collect information. The type of assessment chosen needs to match the student learning goals. The chart on the following page is an attempt to provide several examples of both traditional and alternative assessments. The format was modified from the following resource: Hopple, C. J. (1995). Teaching for outcomes in elementary physical education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetic 15 TYPES of STUDENT ASSESSMENT Traditional Approaches Alternative Approaches Teacher Generated Student Products Written Tests/Worksheets Selected Response. Formats Limited Open-ended Formats Audio/visual Written Performance Tasks Responses selected from given alternatives Brief, written response constructed Generated for exhibition/display Written response generated Physical or cognitive behaviors Multiple-choice Open response Banner Essay, story, poem Skit / role playing True & false Short answer Photo exhibit Research paper Officiate a game Matching /association Label diagram Artwork – black & white Anecdotal Fitness assessment Corrective true & false Fill-in-the- blank Videotape Student journal Debate Concept maps Personal fitness plan Oral report. Poster Student log Instruct a lesson Powerpoint Advertisement Interview imovie Brochure Showcase Audiotape Checklist Movement sequence – dance, gymnastics, locomotor, etc. Rating Scale Warm-up routine Rubric – teacher, peer, self Game play Model of athlete (clay, styrofoam) Record of performance Newspaper Magazine construction Reflection Student project Pre-assessment inventory Student survey, interview, questionnaire Editorial 16 Who Should Assess and Who Can Assess? There are a number of potential ways to assess within physical education. In order for assessment to be successful, it must be practical. The following will identify some ideas and suggestions that can make assessment feasible, useful, and meaningful for both the learner and teacher. Assessment can be completed by the teacher, student, or peer. The more traditional model where the teacher is assessing is often not feasible from a practical perspective. However, if one of the teacher’s objectives is to plan and provide opportunities that result in student responsibility, then it appears logical to involve students in the assessment process whenever appropriate. Self Assessment: Self assessment can be used throughout the instructional process. This provides  both a quick and practical way for the teacher to collect information. Student progress can be recorded using one or more of the following tools – student journal, notebook, index cards – that are completed and submitted to the teacher. Teacher Assessment: Simple checklists, rating scales, and/or rubrics can be used by teacher to assess student performance. In addition, the use of technology in the classroom or gymnasium can be used to assess student performance and student behavior. The videotape, CD and DVD can be viewed at a later time. Peer Assessment: With clear directions from the teacher, peers can collect information that can  indicate student progress. Again, checklists, rating scales, or rubrics can provide criteria for making judgments. Peer assessment requires students to focus on the criteria, allowing them to develop observation skills. For peer assessment to be effective, the teacher needs to teach the observational process. 17 When Should Assessment Occur? ssessment should occur on a continuous basis throughout the year. Assessment used prior to instruction (pre-assessment) could provide information about the students and help establish learning objectives. Assessment used during instruction can provide feedback to both the teacher  and students. Finally, assessment at the end of instruction (post assessment) can determine if learning objectives were met and/or if changes or more work in a particular area is warranted. 1. Formative versus Summative: a. Formative Assessment is done continuously throughout the learning and instruction period. This type of assessment provides feedback that can be used to alter, fine-tune, or modify what has been done. Both teacher and student can use the information gained to improve either teaching practices or learning methods. Traditionally, this is not graded but used as a diagnostic tool. b. Summative Assessment occurs at the end of the learning unit. â€Å"The purpose of summative assessment is to measure how well students have learned key content and skills as defined by the unit’s learning goals and objectives† (http://www. state. ct. us/sde/dtl/ta/seminarseries/online_seminars/phys_ed/4. htm) 2. Pre-Assessment versus Post Assessment: a. Pre-assessment tools are used at the beginning of instruction. Results from pre- assessment are used as a basis for setting reasonable and attainable goals. This allows teachers and students to identify and work on areas that need improvement. b Post assessment tools are used at the end of the learning unit to evaluate student progress and achievement. The post assessment results can be compared to the pre assessment results to measure how well individual students have mastered content and skills and to evaluate the effectiveness of instruction. c. Some of the assessment tools may be used for both pre-assessment and post assessment. For example, the Fitnessgram can be administered in the fall (as a pre-assessment) to help establish health-related fitness goals. Then it could be given again in the spring (as a post assessment) to measure process toward established goals. 18 Where Should One Begin? Using performance tasks for assessment: A performance task is a type of performance assessment in which students physically perform the skill or desired product to be assessed. If one chooses to use performance tasks for assessment the following suggestions should be kept in mind: 1. Choose a task that fits the level and is realistic for both teacher and students. 2. To begin, only assess 1-2 specific classes until becoming familiar with the process. 3. Find performance tasks that can be used to assess outcomes from more than one unit. 4. Use performance tasks for formal and informal assessment. 5. Use assessment stations, when possible. That way one can focus attention on fewer students at a time. 6. Record the names of students who do not perform the task (usually there are fewer). 7. When planning units, specifically plan for assessment time. Do not wait until the last minute to think about assessment. Using portfolio tasks for assessment: Portfolios provide teachers with an authentic form of assessment. They can be used by teachers and students to see progress over time. Physical education teachers need to adapt the use of portfolio tasks to their unique classroom setting. Useful strategies to do this include: 1. Portfolios need to last over time. Therefore, they need to be sturdy enough to handle a variety of papers. Students can personalize them, if desired. Make sure their names (last name, first name) are written in a common, visible place on the portfolio. 2. Decide what should go into the portfolio. This could be a combination of in- class and out-f-class work. Examples might include fitness scores, skill checklists, journal logs, fitness logs, reflections, and worksheets. 3. Store the portfolios by class in a crate or box with handles. Store them in an accessible place. 4. Develop a protocol for students to use when submitting work. 5. Make sure to plan time to review the work in the portfolios. 6. Begin using portfolios with 1-2 classes. In the beginning portfolio tasks may not be necessary for every unit. 19 How Do I Manage This Thing Called Assessment? Management is crucial in implementing any assessment strategy. Establishing assessment protocols will save teachers time and effort. The first step in effective management of assessment is to develop, teach, support students in practicing assessment protocols. Scheimer (1999) stated that assessment protocols provide students with an organized method for obtaining the assessment materials (i. e., paper, pencil, or portfolio), selecting a private area in the gym to complete the assessment, and collecting the materials at the end of the assessment episode. Examples of assessment protocols include: 1. distributing assessment materials 2. collecting assessments 3. ensuring names and dates on papers 4. arranging assessment materials (when teaching back to back classes) 5. dealing with insufficient assessment materials 6. accommodating nonreaders and/or non-English speaking students 7. accommodating students with special needs The following are suggestions for assessment protocols that have been used by effective teachers,  both within the context of physical education and regular classroom teachers. Each protocol can have its drawbacks – experimentation may lead to perfection. Each protocol may need to be modified depending upon the number of students, age/grade of students and use of student aides. Distributing Assessment Materials The key to this assessment protocol is getting the students involved. A class can be divided into smaller groups (no more than 8 students per group). Each group then has a specific equipment area where the necessary assessment materials (as well as the equipment needed for that lesson) are located. Before class begins, the teacher places the necessary assessment materials (and/or equipment) in each equipment area. When it is time to work with the assessment materials (and/or equipment), students go to their group’s equipment area, select the materials (and/or equipment) needed, and return to their designated work space. Collecting Assessments The teacher uses a moveable filing cabinet containing folders with identified markings as tabs. These 25† x 15† systems hold approximately 300 folders, depending on the amount of information collected. It is the students’ responsibility to submit or remove papers from the class or personal  student folder as requested by the teacher. Within each personal folder, files can be categorized by color paper inserts. 20 Ensuring Names and Dates on Papers To keep accurate track of submitted papers, have students write their name or school code, date, and class on each paper. The teacher can fill in the information for students who are absent as this will help keep track of students who have not completed assessments. Arranging Assessment Materials When Teaching Back to Back Classes One of the easiest ways to organize materials is to color code them. Use different colored folders for each class/grade level. Place the assessment worksheets and/or record keeping sheets to be used for that class/grade in each folder. Teachers can help students learn to find the correct folder for their class and take the materials from it. Dealing with Insufficient Assessment Materials Due to the tightness of school budgets, money is often focused on equipment and curriculum rather than materials needed for assessment. However, there are ways to deal with this situation if a teacher is inventive and frugal. Paper: Use recycled paper (one side) and cutting the paper in half or quarters (elementary). Provide a notebook or white lined paper specifically for physical education (secondary). Use chalk boards/ dry erase boards with the teacher making notations on a separate sheet. Writing utensils: Often times at the end of the year, teachers give away crayons that are no longer part of a complete set. Check with the custodians who frequently have collected a bucketful of pencils and pens as they clean the buildings after school. Upper level students may be asked to provide their own pencils or if stations are used, students can share writing implements. In addition, do not be afraid to ask business or community groups for help. Getting two or three boxes of pencils and a ream of paper may be sufficient to use for assessment annually. Accommodating Nonreader and/or Non-English Speaking Students The ideal would be to have a tutor and/or translator in the gymnasium, however, not all schools budget for this. However, since visual models are a key component in helping these students, the following could be used: A. large pictures posted on the walls B. large words with phonetic break downs C. the English alphabet posted on the walls D. flash cards E. teacher/student mirroring F. peer mirroring 21 Accommodating Students with Special Needs. Each student’s Individualized Education Plan (IEP) should be reviewed for necessary accommodations. When a paraprofessional is available, he/she should guide students using a variety of specific modifications as specified in the IEP to access the curriculum and assist in assessment. Consultation with the physical education teacher is critical in this process. When a paraprofessional is not available, the physical educator should utilize the identified modifications as outlined in each student’s IEP for both program development and student assessment. These may include the use of adaptive equipment and/or peer partners for guidance to  assist the student. 22 What is Grading? Grading reports a student’s level of performance and usually includes many assessment measures. Grades are useful for evaluating individual student performance. Grading can be used to motivate students and help them understand that learning is important. Grades provide students and parents with feedback regarding progress and achievement. In addition, grades may provide insight for teachers about instructional planning and for administrative purposes. Grades are needed for student rank, credits, and promotion. 23 What is the Relationship between Assessment and Grading? Assessment is information gathered that examines what has been taught, practiced and learned. Many different assessment techniques may be used to evaluate students’ progress. Grading is a report on students’ level of performance. Goals and objectives should be set prior to assessment used for grading. The students’ grade should reflect a level of achievement compared to the objectives. Assessment reflects performance; grading attaches value to performance. 24 New Hampshire Curriculum Guidelines/Objectives Alignment with Assessment Examples . Curriculum Guideline 1: Engages in a physically active lifestyle Since Guideline 1.

Poverty in America - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1059 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/04/16 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Poverty Essay Did you like this example? Poverty in America, a way of life for many, Including children and adults of all ages, races, and genders, But how do people live in poverty? A simple answer really, they do not. Many who live in poverty are living in a state of constant struggle, a state of hunger and in need of assistance, that is often not provided to the extent that is should be. Many people who live in poverty do not get enough food that one needs to survive, this leads to a high mortality rate in the areas where poverty is prominent. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Poverty in America" essay for you Create order In these areas it is also a lot harder for kids to get good education that will benefit them in life, since schools are run by tax money, schools in areas with higher poverty rates do not have the same opportunities as students in the higher classes. It is also much harder for people who live in poverty to get a stable job, this leads to a low income which especially makes it a lot harder for families trying to get by. Few educational options, a high mortality rate, and low incomes cause poverty to be a difficult obstacle to overcome. Background Research In 1957 about one-fifth of the children in the United States were in families that had low incomes.(Epstein 12). That means that approximately 14.84 million children live in poverty in the United States. 14.84 million children who have to fight daily to eat a proper meal and to get a proper education. Many of these children experience delays later on in life and education, Poor children suffer from emotional and behavioral problems m ore frequently than do non poor children. (Brooks-Gunn and Duncan 62). These types of problems lead to much greater hardships in ones life, growing up in poverty can also affect ones psychological health, and it is known to cause short term spatial memory. How does poverty affect ones educational life? Poverty can lead to a child bullying others or getting bullied themselves. According to Patrice Engle and Maureen Black, Several macro-level interventions to examine the effects of reducing poverty on childrens academic achievement have been evaluated. Initial findings from income supplementation and residential relocation programs appeared promising. There are certain things that may be able to semi-fix the situation such as the experiment where there taking kids from certain parts of the town and sending them to seperate schools, so kids from all over one county could be in the same school, the only problem with that is that still some schools will be funded less than others and some kids will still not have the best education they should be able to get. When a child goes to a not so good school, it makes it harder for them to get into a good college, so they my end up having to go to a community college when they wanted to go somewhere entirely different. Why is there such a high mortality rate for those who live in poverty? According to Lenore Epstein author of Some Effects of Low Income on Children and Their Families, The National health survey, like previous surveys, found that the amount of medical care received by a family was related to the families income. The frequency of visits to the dentist not only a measure of the amount of dental care received but an index of ability to obtain preventive health care in general. this meaning that many families who live in poverty can not obtain things such as healthcare and can not go to the doctor when they want or need to, or the hospital as much as they would like too, so if a family member gets sick a lot of the time they can not afford to take that family member to the hospital to get treated. Some things that could easily be treated can make a person who lives in poverty die, but when things get harder, such as a person getting diagnosed with cancer is when it can get even tougher for a family who lives in poverty. There is also many people who live in poverty that face malnutri tion everyday, this malnutrition can lead too many deaths and it is especially prominent in areas that have a lot of poverty in them. For children, this can be especially hard, seeing as children need to stay nourished throughout their childhood or they may experience growing difficulties, especially toddlers and younger kids. Malnourished children also experience many other difficulties later on in their lives and as Ana Sawaya states in Malnutrition: long-term consequences and nutritional recovery effects If you are left malnourished growing up and you get pregnant, you may experience insufficient weight gain which can affect your safety as well as the baby you are carrying, if you continue to stay malnourished while pregnant your baby will end up being born underweight and malnourished. How do low incomes affect those who live in poverty? People can work and still be poor for two reasons. First, they may not work the entire year due to loss of job, the part-time nature of their job or illness or disability. Second, even full time workers may not earn enough to keep a family, particularly a large family, out of poverty.(Duncan 15). There has always been the argument that if people just got a job they would not live in poverty anymore, that is not the case, many people have jobs and still are not able to make a living, many people also have disabilities and are physically not able to get a job that they can work at full time. Contrary to popular belief, people who live in poverty are not living in poverty because they are lazy, but rather it is hard to find a job that they are able to work at and make enough to live off of. It is especially hard if these people do not have a college degree or high school diploma, seeing as for many jobs that is one of the main require ments, So many people who live in poverty are not able to get financially stable jobs. The United States also spends much more money buying things such as cosmetics, when they could be spending it to help the people who live in poverty. The United States spends 8 billion dollars on cosmetics alone (Anup Shah).